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Ex  LdbriB 
C.  K.  OGDEN 

ON    THE 


7 


RELATIONS 


BETWEEN 


CHINESE  AND  THE  INDO-EUROPEAN  LANGUAGES. 


BY 

S.    S.    HALDEMAN, 

OF   COLUMBIA,   PA. 


[From  the  Proceedings  of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science, 
Albany,  August,  1856.] 


CAMBRIDGE: 
ALLEN    AND    FARNHAM,    PRINTERS, 

185  7. 


/O^^  IIBRART 

^3  tNlVEnSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

SANTA  BARBARA 


PHILOLOGY  AND  ETHNOLOGY. 


§  1.  The  form  of  Chinese  is  so  different  from  that  of  Latin  or 
Greek,  that  we  might  readily  consider  as  fallacious  all  attempts  to  ex- 
hibit an  identity  of  words  between  them. 

§  2.  Some  have  endeavored  to  establish  such  an  identity  upon  cer- 
tain words  of  like  form  and  meaning,  which  cannot  be  depended  upon, 
being  frequently  the  result  of  accident,  like  the  English  hank  (of  earth) 
and  Mandingo  hanko,  with  the  same  meaning ;  the  English  sltave  when 
compared  with  the  Eskimo  shavie,  a  knife,  and  the  Brazilian  ara  with 
"  air,"  and  co  with  "  go."  Similarly,  the  Kaffer  le,  lo,  for  "  that,"  cor- 
responds with  Fr.  le,  ItaL  lo ;  the  Betjuana  ke  is  near  to  the  Ger- 
manic "^^■"  and  Latin  ego  ;  and  the  Bushman  ae  to  the  English  I. 

§  3.  Resemblances  like  the  following,  between  Chinese,  English,  etc., 
should  be  admitted  with  extreme  caution,  as  likely  to  be  accidental : 
gnae,  to  gnaw;  scuk,  SUGO,  to  suck;  bay,  to  buy;  wan,  ivhiie ;  wan, 
crooked  (wend,  wind)  ;  tarn,  damp  ;  tan,  a  red  color  ;  tap,  to  reiterate  ; 
16k,  to  leak  ;  t'hek,  a  house  (tectum)  ;  lap,  loose  skin  ;  t'hew,  a  thread 
(thew)  ;  t'hong,  a  thread,  a  line  (thong)  ;  kap,  to  collect  together,  (keep, 
CAPio)  ;  kap,  a  cape ;  kat,  to  cut ;  etc. 

§  4.  From  the  paucity  of  Chinese  w^ords,  many  of  them  are  over- 
burdened with  meanings,  which  gives  room  for  accidental  resemblances. 
Thus  there  are  fifty  different  characters  read  "  sun,"  and  of  some  of 
these  the  meanings  are  very  diverse,  one  meaning  believe  and  real,  an- 
other thick  and  liberal;  but  none  of  these  meanings  agrees  with  the 
English  sun  or  son.     Of  twenty  Chinese  words,  sit  (meaning  to  eat,  to 


202  NATURAL    HISTORY. 

lose,  to  know,  to  rub,  a  rule,  etc.),  the  nearest  to  English  is  that  mean- 
ing a  ri'sidence,  often  called  a  seat.  This  resembles  the  language  of  a 
child  who  would  use  essentially  the  same  word  for  stick,  cake,  did,  toad, 
dog,  duck,  scratch. 

§  5.  From  the  monosyllabic  nature  of  Chinese,  and  the  necessity  of 
placing  a  vowel  between  most  consonants,  the  words  are  very  different 
from  those  of  Latin.  Thus  the  word  Batavia  has  been  cut  down  to 
pa,  and  cap,  a  ^/ij'p,  stands  for  the  Malay  capal;  "Welsh  ceubal,  a  ferry- 
boat;  Gaelic  cabaile,  a  navy ;  Gr.  Ki'iiBtj,  a  boat,  a-KafVo^,  a  sliff; 
Heb.  Qa'B,  a  concave  vessel ;  Arab.  CilB,  a  cup,  CaV^al,  a  ship. 

§  G.  We  must,  therefore,  in  comparing  Latin  with  Chinese,  reduce 
it  to  its  roots,  reject  the  prefixes  con-,  sub-,  post-,  ex-,  cr-,  str-,  etc.,  be- 
fore consonants,  and  reduce  them  to  a  single  consonant  before  vowels, 
and  replace  the  useful  and  enlivening  r,  with  I  or  s.  Under  this  dissec- 
tion, ICTUS,  a  blow  ;  precor,  I  pray ;  rogo,  I  ask  ;  and  strix,  (Per- 
sian, tshokak)  an  owl,  might  become  respectively  ic,  lee,  sec,  tec ;  which, 
from  the  want  of  the  Latin  inflecting  material,  might  each  have  the  power 
of  from  ten  to  fifty  words,  as  distinct  as  ringor,  I  gape ;  seco,  I  cut ; 
and  PLico,  I  fold.  But  as  strix,  to  be  pronounceable,  must  become 
something  like  satalicasa,  its  Chinese  form  might  be  sa,  as  Batavia 
is  pa. 

§  7.  Similar  imitative  words  may  occur  in  languages  the  most  dis- 
tinct, without  indicating  linguistic  affinity  ;  as  in  the  names  of  animals 
which  imitate  their  cry,  like  the  Chinese  beaou,  a  cat,  the  voice  of 
which  is  called  miau  by  the  Germans,  m  being  a  nasal  b.  But  an 
i^en|ity  of  imitative  words  is  not  common  between  languages  of  diflTer- 
ent  stocks,  because  they  are  submitted  to  the  local  laws  of  speech.  In 
English,  one  who  hesitates  what  to  say,  is  said  to  hem  and  haw,  al- 
though he  does  not  use  one  of  the  sounds  imitated  in  this  translation 
into  speech  ;  whilst  the  French  imitative  word  siffler  is  different  from 
the  English  ichistle,  hiss,  and  ivhiz,  although  the  root  sif-  is  a  metathesis 
and  permutation  o^whiz,jiz.  The  English  imitatives  roar,  rush,  how- 
ever natural  they  appear,  need  not  be  looked  for  in  Chinese ;  nor  will 
Cherokee  (in  which  p,  b,  f,  v,  are  wanting)  furnish  phonetic  equiva- 
lents to  pop,  bob,  bubble  {nonrfog),  and  their  cognates  in  viv-id,  vi-olent, 
vi-gor,  Bi-og,  Bi-a,  be,  vi-r,  vi-reo,  vi-s,  etc. 

§  8.  But  whilst  imitatives  must  be  compared  w^ith  caution,  if  we 
find  that  an  imitative  basis  has  been  not  only  adopted,  but  modified  (as 


PHILOLOGY   AND    ETHNOLOGY.  203 

far  as  the  genius  of  different  languages  would  permit)  in  the  same 
manner,  with  Jliejame  prefixes,  having  the_s_ame_go>vgr,  we  will  have 
gone  far  to  prove  a  common  origin  in  the  languages  where  such  a  uni- 
formity occurs,  —  especially  between  Chinese  and  the  P^uropean  lan- 
guages, where  the  differences  are  so  obvious. 

§  9.  In  the  present  essay,  a  throat  exclamation  will  be  traced  into 
European  speech,  together  with  its  ramifications  and  growth  by  means 
of  reduplication,  metathesis,  and  the  use  of  prefixes ;  to  be  followed  by 
their  Chinese  equivalents.  Throat  sounds  are  used  in  various  lan- 
guages, to  form  Avords  for  cough,  throat,  speech,  wailing,  cricket, 
gurgle,  emotion,  rigid,  narrow,  action,  work,  break,  noise,  pound,  frag- 
ment, breach,  crack,  point,  thorn,  spear,  axe,  molest,  strike,  tear,  throw, 
shoot,  ray,  light,  torch,  fire,  blow,  go,  extend,  etc. 

IRISH. 

§  10.  Och,  oh,  alas;  cohu,  sorrow ;  ochan,  a  deep  sigh;  t-achta, 
choking;  g-uch,  a  loud  voice;  r-uch,  a  running,  a  rushing ;  sruch,  a 
Jlowing  of  waters,  a  stream  ;  scriach,  a  screech. 

WELSH. 

§  11.  O,  alas,  out  of,  what  proceeds ;  oi,  well!  to  proceed;  oc,  from, 
out  of ;  og,  what  is  full  of  motion  or  life,  youth,  a  harrow ;  (Latin 
OCCO,  to  harrow).  The  force  of  the  Irish  prefix  r-,  appears  in  Welsh 
as  follows :  — 

412.   rhu,  a  bud  utterance.  §  13.    uch,  u-Iiut  breaks  out,  a  sigh. 
rhw,  what  breaks  or  grows  out.  ig,  a  hiccup,  a  sob. 

rhuo,  to  roar,  to  talk.  och,  alas  ;  ich,  a  sqitcal. 

rhueinell,  a  clarion.  ochan,  a  groan  ;  igio,  to  sigh. 

rhe,  swift  motion.  aclian,  a  hymn. 

rha,  what  forces.  ag,  an  opening,  a  deft. 

§  14.  By  combining  rhu  with  uch,  etc.,  and  using  prefixes  (as  c-, 
ys-,  gw-,)  to  the  compounds,  we  get  the  two  following  series :  — 

rh-ach,  what  is  forced  out.  c-r-ech,  a  scream. 

rhoch,  a  grunt,  groan.  greg,  a  cackle. 

rhinc,  a  creak,  gnash.  grig,  «  low  rustle. 

rhing,  a  creak.  gryg'  harshness,  roughness. 

rhunc,  a  snort,  a  rattle.  grwng,  a  rumbling  noise. 

rhych,  a  trench.  ys-g-ix'ch,  a  saeak. 

rhic,  rhig,  a  notch,  groove.  ysgrcchog,  a  jay. 


204  NATURAL    IIISTORT. 

§  15.  The  reduplication  of  ig,  ieii,  (and  the  use  of  prefixes,) 
gives  (c  being  k,  as  in  Latin), 

ccji,  the  month,  throat.  cegn,  to  (/hit.  gwag,  a  vacuum. 

cegio,  to  choke,  cyngaii,  speech.  ys-gecrii,  to  bicker. 

cecr,  a  brawl.  gw-ich,  a  s-qu-eak.  h-uch,a  sow.  (Pei"S.  khok,  a  hog.) 

cccren,  to  scold.  gwica,  to  cri/  icares.  p-uch,  a  sigh,  a  r/runt. 

cocr,  coaxing.  gwach,  a  hole.  ]>-m-ho,  to  sigh,  pant,  grunt. 

Compare  Aiigl.  ccgan,  to  call      The  p-  of  p-iieli  occurs  in  (cle)p-rive,  p-lacid,  etc. 

§  16.  The  Welsh  root-word  11a  (akin  to  rha,  §  12,)  is  a  noun  mean- 
ing, that  which  breaks  out,  is  light,  or  clear.  It  has  various  cognates, 
as  llae,  an  expanse ;  Hi,  a  Jlood;  llw,  an  exclamation,  oath ;  Hewer, 
light ;  lloer,  the  moon  ;  llewen,  a  focus  ;  llewyrn,  a  meteor;  llwys,  clear, 
pure,  holy  ;  and  with  a  prefix,  g-lwys,  pure,  holy,  fair ;  g-law,  bright- 
ness ;  golwch,  ivorship. 

§  17.    By  combining  Ua  and  uch,  we  get  the  series,  — 

llach,  a  ray,  a  slap.  Hwg,  ivhat  is  bright. 

llachar,  gleaming.  Ihigan,  a  glitter. 

llucli,  a  throw,  a  glance.  Ihigas,  a  dawning. 

lluclied,  lightning.  Ihigom,  a  trumpet. 

llig,  what  shoots.  Hygad,  eye-sight,  eye. 

Hug,  a  gleam.  H.Vgas,  splendor. 

§  18.  By  combining  11a  and  uch,  commencing  with  the  guttural,  we 
get  another  Welsh  series, — 

gal,  spread  out,  clear.  colon,  a  peak.  gawl,  a  datcn,  holy. 

galw,  to  call,  invoke.  gall,  energy.  geli,  a  shooting  out. 

galaru,  to  lament.  gallus,  powerful.  gclin,  a  sprig. 

'     col,  cor,  a  point.  golau,  light.  goliw,  a  faint  tint. 

col-p,  a  dart.  gole,  splendor.  claer,  eglur,  clear. 

The  -p  in  col-p  (Swedish,  kol-p,  a  dart)  is  ])rescnt  in  the  English  gulp,  yelp,  scalp. 
The  following  are  Gaelic  :  — 

gal,  weeping.  gea\,  fair,  bright.  gaol, /owe. 

gu\,  crying  out.  gilead,  whiteness.  gealun,^re. 

galan,  noise.  galla,  brightness,  beauty.         gaoil,  boiling,  anger. 

§  19.  The  two  preceding  series  (§  17,  18,)  suggest  q)-)Jy-co,  to  burn, 
shine,  vex;  q)).f'y[ia,fire,  (f-la-me)  :  English,  lo !  look,  light,  call,  yell, 
gul-let,  clear,  glory,  glow  :  dF-ytXl-a,  to  announce ;  d-ydll-co,  to  make 
splendid,  to  exult :  Irish,  gal,  ivhite ;  gulach,  the  moon :  Latin,  luceo, 


PHILOLOGY   AND    ETHNOLOGY.  205 

to  shine;  lux,  light:  Gr.  lvy.og,  the  sun;  Xvyr^vog,  a  lamp;  y-lav/.-og, 
blue,  clear,  the  L  of  which  appears  in  ?.«(«,  to  look  at ;  7.?v(y),  to  see, 
shine. 

§  20.  The  same  L  (§  §  IG,  19,)  occui's  in  the  Gaelic  la,  lo,  laoi,  a  day  ; 
\3iOva,  f-lame  ;  li,  color  ;  leas,  light ;  leicc,  leug,  a  diamond,  a  gem;  lia, 
a  jlood ;  lua,  an  oath,  water ;  lo,  water.  With  these  (and  with  rhu, 
§  12,  r  not  being  a  Chinese  element),  we  may  compare  the  Chinese 
le,  clear,  bright,  happiness  ;  lek,  bright,  clear ;  long,  fireworks  ;  lo,  a 
voice,  a  sound;  loe,  to  converse ;  16,  a  gong;  lo,  a  drumming  in  the 
ear  ;  ladu,  a  noise  ;  lew,  a  flood;  le,  to  flow  rapidly. 

§  21.  From  the  continuousness  of  S,  s-creak  may  have  been  intended 
for  a  continuous  action :  uch,  ich,  (§  13,)  being  continuous,  want  the 
explosive  sharpness  that  results  from  commencing  with  closed  organs, 
a  deficiency  which  c-  (cay)  would  supply,  besides  simulating  the  closed 
glottis  at  the  beginning  of  a  c-ougb,  at  the  end  of  a  hi-c(cup)  during  the 
continuance  of  ch-ok-ing  or  g-ag-ing,  and  the  frequentative  action  of 
c-ac-ling,  ch-uc-ling,  and  g-ig-ling. 

§  22.  The  root  of  s-c-r-eak  is  perceived  in  h-ic-cup,  the  enlivening  r 
gives  r-ing,  (and  the  perversion  r-ough)  :  Latin,  r-ic-tus,  the  mouth  ; 
RAVCUS,  hoarse,  harsh;  r-og-o,  to  ask ;  Gr.  Q-t'pA-ai,  to  snort;  ^-Q-v)[-(>}, 
to  howl;  >i-Q-iT-03,  (fut.  •/.-()■  1^0),)  to  c-r-eak ;  y^niyij,  a  creak,  •/.-Q-dy.-zr^g, 
unayitrjg,  a  crier ;  Latin,  c-R-oc-io,  to  croak,  leading  by  successive 
prefixes,  to  creak,  cricket,  crack,  screak,  screech,  click,  cluck,  clang, 
etc. ;  Gr.  l-iy-aivco,  to  cry  out ;  y.-l-aryij  ;  Latin,  clangor  ;  and  gloc-io, 
to  cluck.  Starting  with  the  root  of  echo,  r-  gives  r-ixa  contention,  a 
t-  prefixed  (tqi^co,  to  stridulate,  in  the  future  tense)  t-Q-i^-oj,  and  an 
intensive  s-,  s-t-r-ix,  an  owl.  This  agglutination  of  prefixes  shows  a 
close  affinity  in  the  structure  of  Greek,  Latin,  and  P^nglish  words. 

§  23.     GREEK. 

1  ijX^,  sound,  clamor.  5  i,^{,g^  sharp,  ac-id.  9  kokvu,  to  lament. 

^  flX(j,  echo.  '^  a/co^,  a  sound,  the  ear.  (tai),  o<,  ahis.) 

8  evxv,  a  prayer,  boast.  ^  ^kovu,  to  hear.  w  oi^vci.  atttiction.* 

*  af^u,  to  throttle,  torture.  *  uxo^,  affliction.  "  l-ax-eu,  to  shout. 


*  The  initial  of  this  word  is  akin  to  the  preceding.  The  mark  ;  indicates  that 
the  word  is  not  a  ])rimitivc  form,  C  hcing  probably  derived  from  a  guttural,  like  San- 
scrit, Persian,  and  English  tsli,  which  is  rarely  a  primitive. 


20G 


nilLOLOGY   AND    ETHNOLOGY. 


ai-ayfia,  a  sigh. 

l-uK-rj,  din  of  battle. 

ox-^o?,  a  mob. 

ty-u,  I,  the  sp-eak-er. 

kKd,  there. 

ovK,  ovx,  not. 

o-ye,  tliis ;  hoc,  ye,  yc-s. 

dTK-uofxai,  I  bray. 
'  orKO(,  swellino;,  bulk. 

ofKij,  size,  a  hook. 
'  ky-eipu,  to  arouse. 
'  uye,  come  out !  hence  to 
e(jg,  or  a<j(j  on. 

uT-yeXk-u,  to  announce.     ■ 
'  (ij'aA/lw,  to  make  splen- 
did,  to   exult ;  aly?^7], 
ayX-aia,  splendor. 
'  avyfj,  light,  the  eye. 

(l>-My-fia,  fire,  heat. 

uyTj,  respect,  envy,  hate. 
'  uyavpbg,  proud,  fierce. 
* 

'  A-u/c-w,    to     sound     like 

breaking." 
/leyw,  to  speak. 
■  yla/cdfw,  to  talk. 
'  2,£VKavia,  the  throat.  ' 

■■  x-^u^-iJ,\.  to  swell,  be  full, 

i-ush,  gurgle. 
liyaivu,  to  cry  out. 
?ii'y(j,  to  hiss,  whiz. 
Tuyvvg,     a     smoky    fire, 

smoke.2^ 
^iyv-7}x-V?)  clear   sound- 
ing. 
K-?uifyf/,  clangor. 
Avfyaivo),  to  sob,  hiccup. 


<p-?iU^-u,\.  to  stammer. 

(iyu,  to  b-r-eak. 

olyvvu),  to  open. 

l-aK-eu,  to    rend,  break, 
resound. 

/la/crt^u,  to  kick. 

TiUKTig,  a  pestle. 

Hy6og,  lydog,  a  mortar. 

■n-Tiriyfi,  a  blow. 

n-T^Tju-TJiQ,  a  str-ik-er. 

/I6r;\;?/,  a  spear  head,  the 
tip  of  the  ^ong-ue. 

loLybg,  destnxction. 

lELxijv,  lichen.t 

"kaxvj},  wool.t 

\liKog,  a  rag.wi  102 

7-uy-vpi,  a  minute  frag- 
ment. 

Xuxog,  a  lot,  portion,  ap- 
pearance. 

XoxfiTj,  a  bush,  thicket. 

Xvyaiog,  shady. 

?ivypdg,  sad,  weary. 

?i.vyrj,  darkness. 

Aiiyof,  a  shrub,  an  osier, 
flexible. 

?^vy6u),  to  bend,  tie. 

?i0^dg,  oblique. 

T-6^-ov,  a  bow. 

uyf/,      a     fracture,''^      a 
wave. 

u^ivy,  an  axe. 

6y/xog,  a  furrow,  track. 

o^erbg,  a  trench. 

oxT/,  food,  a  hollow. 

uyapiKov,  a  mushroom. 

uKuxo),  to  molest. 


rp-i';\;-6w,  to  harass.* 

a'lK-ia,  injury. 

(itydTjv,  impetuosity. 

l^a?Mg,  leaping. 

cif,  (uya,  a  goat. 

ufKoTug,  the  arm. 

alx-fifj,  a  spear  point. 

fx-ux-aipa,  a  sword. 

d/c^,  a  point. 

d/i'av,  a  thistle,  brier. 

uKavda,  a  thorn. 

uKfif/,  acme ;  aa-fiai,  pim- 
j)les. 

£,Yf,  a  viper. 

kxivog,  a  hedgehog. 

d,tp"f,  the  wild  pear. 

oTuxvi,  a  sp-ike  of  corn, 
a  phmt,  offspring. 

TSKog,  a  child. 

(7T-cy-£vg,  an  awl. 

rpaxvg,  rough,  harsh. 

Tpiyfihg,  a  slirill  cry.^^^ 

6-ex-onai,  to  tak-c,  com- 
prehend. 

firjxavf],  a  work. 

deKTTjp,  a  tak-er. 

dd/trv/lof,  a  finger. 

Tiixavbg,  the  fore  finger. 

/lei;t".  to  lick.^*^ 

up-Ey-u,  to  sti-etch  forth. 

T-dy-w,  to  grasp. ^2 

j3-pax-iuv,  the  arm.^*  *^ 

t 
l^uyog,  f>ayog,  a  rag. 
T-pvx-og,  a  tatter. 
j3-pax-vg,  short,  little,  as 
if  l)-rok-en. 


*  7i,va,  discord ;  Xa-,  da-,  "ke-,  are  intensive,  as  in  Xiav,  very. 

t  From  its  broken  appearance,  —  but  n-pin-u,  is  to  strike,  to  weave;  uponrj,  the 
woof;  KpoKlg,  nap,  a  lock  of  wool,  threads  sticking  out  of  cloth ;  hence  KpoKog,  cro- 
cus, saffron,  from  the  conspicuous  stigmas. 

}  The  force  of  R  in  No.  1*^1,  etc.,  (see  ^  12)  is  observed  in  opovu,  to  rush  upon ; 
bpu,  to  move,  excite,  arise ;  /iew,  to  flow  ;  d-p6og,  uproar. 


PHILOLOGY   AND    ETHNOLOGY. 


207 


1''*  l)u,Kioq,  a  steep  rock. 
I'^s  l)aiiTT]piog,      resounding, 

striking. 
106  pu^iq^  the  spine. 
1"'^  (>iC,a,[  a  root. 

108  ()uxog,  a  thorn  bush. 

109  (j)-payfiuv,  a  thorn  hedge. 

110  <j>-paKT?ip,  an  inclosure. 

111  d-ptfabc;,  a  coping. 

112  r-«;t^w,  to  wall,  fortify. 

113  TEKTaivu,  to  construct. 
11*  Te;i;vaw,  to  make. 

115  ()uyug,  split. 

116  a-uyapic,  a  battle  axe.*** 
11'^  jipuxu,  to  crash,  creak. 
11^  I3pvx(^,  to  howl. 

119  ()6xdog,  a  loud  noise. 

120  ^ef/cw,  to  snort,  snore.^i 

121  ^vfxog,  a  snout. 

122  f)7jy/ia,  a  b-reak,  c-rack. 

123  fjTjKibg,  broken. 
12*  T-p-ioy-o),  to  chew. 


125  (p-ay-Eiv,  to  eat. 

126  (prjyog,  the  beech. 

127  Tpvyij,  corn,  pulse. 12* 

128  ^oyoQ,  a  granary. 

129  KpEKij,  to  strike. 

130  T-pay-og,  a  goat. 

131  KpuKTTjg,  a  crier. 

132  K-pu^u,  I  to  c-roak. 

133  /c-p<Cu,4   (fut.    /cpi|w)    to 

c-reak. 
13*  0-pafw,|  to  relate.*i 

135  0-pf^,  the  murmur   and 

rippling  of  waves. 

136  dpiKT],  a  shuddering. 

137  (ppi^bg,   bristled,    rough, 

curly. 

138  dpi^,  hair ;  53  note. 

139  (ppvyo),  to  fry,  parch. 
1*0  (j)pvKTEvo),  to  kindle. 
1*1  affw,  to  aug-ment. 

1*2  naKTou,  I  make  compact, 
■Ktiybg,  compact. 


*3  Traytof,  stiff  with  cold. 
**  nayog,  frost,  ice. 
*5  nuxog,  thickness. 
*6  iraxvvcj,  to  render  fat. 
*7  7r^;);t;f,  the  upper  arm. 
*^  TTuyuv,  a  cubit. 
*9  77V}'^,  the  haunch. 
"  KVKvou,  I  condense. 

51  nvmvbg,  crowded. 

52  irvyfifj,  the  fist. 

53  nvKTTjg,  a  b-ox-cr. 
5*  TTTiKTlg,  a  lyre. 

55  nayu6tg,  a  lyre. 
iua,\;7?,  f-igh-t. 

57  fiiyag,  big. 

58  fiaKpbg,  long.* 

59  fUKpbg,  small.* 

60  noKog,  a  fleece. 

61  nijyuv,  a  beard. 

62  TTt'^of,  the  box-tree  .t 
ncvKT),  the  fir,  a  torch. t 

6*  maaa,\.  ])itch,  (pixa?)i 
65  ■jiKpog,  pungent,  bitter. 


§  24.     LATIN. 

The  following  numbers  and  words  correspond,  in  a  general  way, 
witli  those  of  the  preceding  Greek  series.  Such  a  reference  admits 
of  much  variation,  a  word  in  one  language  having  affinities  witli 
several  in  another.  To  keep  this  in  view  ^^ico,  I  strike,  has  the  num- 
ber of  «rca,  I  break,  and  its  derivative  ictus,  a  blow,  has  that  of  amu, 
an  injury.     The  name  of  a  singing-bird,  ^'^^  fringilla,  is  placed  near 


*  Whilst  crowding  on  material  enlarges  an  object,  pressure  and  condensation  di- 
minish the  size  of  the  aggregation.     Compare  magnus,  large,  and  macek,  lean. 

t  liv^og,  Buxus,  from  its  dense  foliage,  —  "  most  dense  "  of  Plini.  "  Buttmann 
makes  it  very  probable  that  the  radical  notion  of  nevK-i]  is  not,  as  usually  sujipos^d, 
that  of  bitterness,  but  of  sharp-pointedness,  the  fir  being  so  called  cither  from  its 
pointed  shape,  or  from  its  spines."  Liddell  and  Scott.  Ilfii/cj/,  ./??•,  is  in  Latin  abies, 
probably  for  abiex,  its  adjective  being  abiegnus,  as  salix,  willow,  gives  salignus, 
made  of  willow. 


208 


PHILOLOGY   AXD    ETHNOLOGY. 


*^FRiGUTio,  to  twitter;  but  the  bird  lias  a  very  robust  bill,  and  is  a 
seed  eater,  hence  its  number  is  that  of  fkango,  to  break.  Here  there 
is  no  real  discrepancy ;  words  like  break,  cracl:,  being  applied  both  to 
the  sound  and  its  accompanying  phenomenon,  the  ear  taking  note  of 
the  former,  and  the  eye  of  the  latter. 


1  All,  alas,  oh. 
1-  EHO,  ho  !  v-AH,  oh  ! 
1*  s-ic,  thus ;  T-CNC,  then. 
1^  H-ic,  here ;  h-oc,  this. 

1*  EX  (c/C,  ff),  out  of. 
1^  EGO,  I. 

1'  Ai  {al),  alas  ;  aio,  I  say. 
^'^  EJULO,  I  wail. 
^I'ECCE,  behold.i® 
'-^"  ocuLUS,  eye. 
2^B-ACCA,  berry. 
26n-ic-to,  I  blink. 
-t'N-ic-o,  I  beckon. 
-^sp-EC-io,  I  see. 
^^s-AG-AX,    seeing    easily, 
ac-ute. 

"  ACHETA,  a  cricket. 

*>  CICADA,  a  noisy  insect. 
^  LOCUSTA,  a  grasshopper. 

^  ECHO,  echo. 
?3  v-ox,  voice. 
23  v-AGio,  I  sq-u-eak. 
23  F-AC-UNDUS,  el-oq-ucnt. 
33  B-uc-iNA,  a  trumpet. 
33  p-oc-ULum,  a  cup. 
33  B-uccA,  a  mouth,  morsel. 
33  M-icA,  a  crumb,  bit. 


31  p-iG-EO,  I  grieve. 
31  N-EGO,  I  say  no. 
31  D-ocEO,  I  ^each. 
31  FK-iG-UTio,  I  twitter. 
31  F-L-AG-iTio,  I  demand. 

1-3  FRIXGILLA,  a  fiuch. 

13^  FRiGO,  I  roast. 

11^  KiNGOR,    I    open    the 

mouth, 
n^  STRiGO,    I    rest,     take 

breath. 
"1  s-T-R-ix,  an  owl. 
STRIDE04.     {d    for    rj) 

Tpii^u),[  to  stridulate. 


STRiGiLis,  a  scraper. 


MAXILLA,  a  jaw. 


33 

33  MUGio,  I  bellow. 

33  F-Avc-ES,  the  gullet. 

v-AG-iNA,  a  scabbard. 

v-ACO,  to  be  empty. 
^'  L-AC-UNA,  a  ditch. 
'1  L-ACio,  I  call. 
^1  LEGO,  I  depute. 
^1  LOQVOR,  I  speak. 
31  LUGEO,  I  mourn. 


91 

11^  R-ix-A,  contention. 

GR-AC-ULUS,  a  jackdaw. 

KOGO,  I  ask,  beg. 

PROCO,  I  demand. 

PRECOR,  I  pray. 
11^  RICTUS,  the  mouth. 

RUCTDS,  eructation. 

RAVCUS,  harsh. 

RUGA,  a  w-rinkle. 

RIGOR  {^lyog),  stiffness. 

FRiGEo,  I  freeze. 

FRico,  I  rub. 
123  FRAXGO,  I  break. 

FRAXixus,  the  ash. 

PL-ANGO,  I  beat. 

PLAGA  (ttPiT?)//),  a  l)low. 

PLECTO,  I  punisli. 

PLECTO  [tt'Xeku),  I  plait. 
^2  FLECTO,  I  bend,  turn. 
^3  FLOCCUS,  a  lock  of  wool. 
•^2  LUCTOR,  I  wrestle. 
^2  LiGO,  I  tie. 


^3  LiciUM,  a  thread. 
**  LIGO,  a  hoe,  a  rake. 

p-EC-TEN,  a  comb. 

PLICO,  I  fold. 
**  LAXus,  sl-ack,  wide. 

PL-ACENTA   (TT/la/COtf),  a 

cake. 
FLACcus  (jSAuf),  flaccid. 

FL-AGELLO,  I  whip. 

1-*  FR-ux,  produce. 
1-5  N-nx,  a  nut. 
12s  F-AG-us,  the  beech. 
5  AC-EO,  to  be  tart. 
5  ACiES,  an  edg-e. 
•^•^  Acus,  a  needle.""  ^^ 

MUCRO,  a  point. 

MACERiA,  a  garden  wall. 
3  EGEO,  to  ach-e. 
*2  ICO,  I  strike."  128 
'3  ICTUS,  a  blow. 
*2  j-AC-EO,  I  throw. 
''■-  occo,  I  harrow, 
ii**  s-AVC-io,  I  wound,  kill. 

s-UG-iLLO,  I  strike,  re- 
vile. 

8AVCIUS,  sick. 

siGxo,  I  mark,  express. 

v-EX-o,  I  pl-ague,  affl-ic-t. 

viCTiMA,  a  victim. 

TR-ux,  fierce. 

L-AC-ERO,  I  tear. 

LACERTA,  a  liz-ard. 

S-Axum,  a  rock. 

SECO,  I  cut,  wound,  go. 

siCA,  a  d-agg-er. 

siciLis,  a  sickle. 

N-EC-o,  I  slay. 


PHILOLOGY   AND    ETHNOLOGY. 


209 


NOCENS,  per-n-ic-ious. 

NOX  {vi'^),  niglit. 

NIGER,  black. 

NUGAE,  trifles. 

PECCO,  I  sin. 

p-EJ-OR,  worse. 
*2  AGO,  I  move,  drive. 

s-AG-iTTA,  an  arrow. 

T-iG-Ris,  a  tiger. 
^X  IGNIS,  fire. 


1*1  M-AG-is,  more. 

l^''  M-AG-NUS,  b-ig. 

M-AG-iSTER,  a  master. 
R-EG-o,  I  dir-ec-t. 
p-ANG-o,  I  fix,  agree. 
piGNUS,  a  pawn. 
PACTUS,  bargained. 
PL-AC-ATio,  a  pacifying. 
p-AC-o,  I  pacify. 
1^1  p-AG-us,  a  village. 


25  FL-AG-RO,  I  burn,  glow.  151  v-ic-us,  a  village. 


FOCUS,  a  hearth. 
FAX,  a  torch. 
113  x-iG-ND™,  a  beam. 

^'  L-IG-NUni,  wood. 

B-AC-ULUS,  a  stick. 
AXIS  {u^uv),  an  axletree. 
GR-AC-iLis,  slender. 
L-ONG-US,  long. 
M-AC-ER,  ra-eag-re. 
v-AG-OR,  I  wander. 
s-EQ-voR,  I  follow. 
*2  FR-EQ-VENS,  frcqucnt. 
L-iNQ-vo,  I  leave. 
F-UG-io  {<t>Evyu)),  I  fly. 


152  p-xjG-NUS,    the    fist,    a 

handful. 

153  puGNO,  I  fight. 
PUNGO,  I  stick,  sting. 
nuyovpog,  .a    p-ung-ar, 

(spiny  lobster). 
puGio,  a  dagger. 
sp-ic-A,  a  spike. 

T-ANG-O,  I  touch. 

T-AC-EO,  I  am  silent. 
^■^  L-ING-O,  I  lick. 
5°  LiNGVA,  the  tongue. 
^^  D-uc-o,  to  draw,  t-ng, 
g-et. 


N-ix-OR,  I  rest  on,  strive.  ^^  d-ig-nus,  tak-e-worthy. 


^*  F-AC-io,  I  m-ak-e. 
FACiES,  appearance. 


9^  D-EC-ENS,  decent. 
^-  DECUMANUS,  great. 


PEGMA  (ir^y/ia),  a  m-a-    ^^  dico  {dimi^u),   I   take. 


ch-ine. 
F-AEC-ULA,  dregs. 
M-AC-ULA,  a  stain. 
P-iG-MENTum,  paint. 
F-iNG-o,  I  make. 

F-IG-O,  I  fix. 

FiCTUS,  feigned. 
f-ig-ura,  shape. 
L-oc-o,  I  place. 
L-EC-TDS,  a  bed. 
L-EG-O,  I  collect. 

L-uc-Rum,  gain. 
1*1  AUG-EO,  I  augment. 
1*1  31-AC-TUS,  augmented. 


give,  proclaim,  say. 
^2  Dico,  I  say,  assign. 
^'^  digitus,  a  f-ing-er. 
92  DEXTER,  the  right  hand, 

m-ight. 
^  DECEin  (6eKa),  ten. 
92  INDEX,  a  sign. 
92  iNDico,  I  show,  declare. 
*2  dego,  (de,  ago,)  I  live, 

TR-AH-o,  I  draw,  take. 

TR-AC-TO,  I  dr-ag,  str-ike 

v-EC-TO,  I  convey. 
25  EUCEO,  to  light,  glitter. 

L-iQ-vEO,  to  be  liquid, 
clear,  plain. 


AQ-VA,  water. 
M-AC-ERO,   I    s-oak    in 

1-iq-uor. 
m-uc-idus,  slimy. 
L-AC-RiMA,  a  tear. 
LACUS  (/IdKOf ),  a  lake. 

ST-AG-NUm,  a  pool. 

R-iG-o,  I  irrigate. 
8-icc-us,  dry,  thirsty. 
s-icc-o,   I    drf,   drain, 

suck. 
SUGO,  I  suck, 
sucus,  juice,  sap,  v-ig-or. 
SANGVis,   blood,  force, 

race. 
v-iG-EO,  I  live,  am  active. 
F-EC-uxDUS,  fertile. 
v-ic-TiTO,  I  feed  on. 
v-EG-ETUS,  quick,  fresh. 
R-EC-ENS,  growing,  fresh. 
EACEMUS,  a  cluster. 
SEGES,  seed,  corn,  pi-ofit. 
SAGiNA,  food,  fatness. 
p-ix,  pitch. 
P-ING-VIS,  fat. 

p-EC-Tus,  the  breast. 

P-IG-ER,  slow,  dull. 

p-EC-u,  sheep,  cattle. 

GR-EX,  a  flock. 
58  L-uc-us,  a  wood. 
^2  NEXO,  I  bind,  connect. 
■^2  STR-ING-O    (arpaFycj) ,  I 

grasp,  tie. ^2 
^2  v-iNCO,  I  conquer. 

T-EX-o,  I  weave,  builA. 

TOG-A,  a  gown. 

T-EG-O  (areyu),  I  cover, 
st-ick  away. 

s-oc-io,  I  join,  associate. 

MAS  (for  max  ?),  a  male. 

Tussis    (for    tuxis?)    a 
cough. 


210  rniLOLOGY  and  ethnology. 


§  25.    CHINESE. 

Chinese  being  spoken  with  a  peculiar  intonation,  the  marks  of 
accent  and  length  used  in  printing  it,  indicate  the  tone,  and  where  this 
is  different,  but  the  elements  identical,  the  words  are  considered  to  be 
distinct.  In  fact  it  is  less  of  an  error  to  use  T  for  L,  than  to  use  a 
wrong  tone.  The  examples  are  from  Medhurst's  dictionary  of  the 
Ilok-kol-n  dialect,  and  the  orthography  English,  ch,  y,  ng,  having  their 
power  in  chip,  young.  The  examples  will  be  those  corresponding  to 
the  "Welsh,  Greek,  and  Latin,  already  given,  commencing  with  those 
which  have  a  reduplicated  guttural,  as  k-k,  k-ng,  y-k,  or  its  trans- 
mutation (with  English  ch,  as  in  speak,  speech,)  ch-k. 

§26.  kek,  bright;  keng,  very  bright;  gang,  bright;  gong, 
sunrise;  hong,  red;  yang,  to  illumine;  yang,  the  sun;  cheng, 
brightness;  hong,  luminous,  clear;  (seang,  cloth  of  a  light  yellow 
color,  as  if  from  se,  cloth,  and  eng,  bright).*  Jakutish,  tshaghyrga, 
to  radiate,  ligliten ;  tshokyr,  flint ;  tslio/,  a  burning  coal  ;  dzliangkii, 
to  be  clear,  transparent.  The  mind  associates  a  ray,  a  spear,  and  a 
shoot ;  hence  we  find 

§  27.  kek,  a  spear;  hong,  the  ])oint  of  a  weapon;  keng,  a  stalk 
of  corn;  chek,  a  blade  of  grass;  yang,  young  shoots  of  rice, 
calamity;  yang,  nourishment;  yang,  nausea;  (seng,  to  be  born, 
alive). 

§  28.  go'k,  a  peak,  the  point  of  a  sword,  a  crocodile ;  ga'k,  a  hill ; 
gek,  rugged  like  hills,  lofty;  gong,  high. 

§  29.  yeu'k;  a  sound,  a  voice,  bright,  clear;  yiing,  to  leap,  a  bub- 
bhng  fountain,  bold  ;  yea'k,  to  leap;  heng,  to  walk,  to  travel;  (6ng, 
to  walk  quickly;  seang,  hasty)  ;  cheng,  hasty  walking,  afraid;  hek 
(and  k'k),  to  be  afraid;  che'k  (and  tiiuk),  to  advance;  (e'k,  to  lead 
hastily);  heng,  to  accompany;  hong,  haste;  heung,  to  hasten. 
(In  German  keck  means  pert,  bold,  nimble ;  Eng.  quick).  Jakutish, 
yk,  to  hasten. 


*  In  like  manner,  it  is  probable  that  the  Sanscrit  root  rap'h,  to  stir,  to  break. 
Latin,  rap-io,  (Eidihoff,  No.  525,)  is  eoinposcd  of  all,  to  go,  to  reach,  (E.  No.  495,) 
and  ab,  to  go,  (E.  No.  22,)  or  ap,  to  occupy,  to  hold,  (E.  No.  23.) 


PHILOLOGY    AND    ETHNOLOGT.  211 

§  30.  The  following  examples,  in  continuation  of  the  preceding,  ai'e 
to  be  read  across  the  page.  The  first  column  contains  the  root,  to 
which  the  prefixes  s-(r-)t-,  1-,  are  added  in  the  second,  third,  and  fourth 
columns.  A  few  parallel  ibrms  in  Greek,  Latin,  "Welsh,  Gaelic,  and 
Hebrew  are  added,  examples  in  r-  being  placed  with  its  cognate  s-. 

§  31.  The  force  of  the  Chinese  prefixes  k-,  s-,  t-,  (1-,  see  §  20,)  is 
observable  in  k  e,  a  pearl ;  to  ridicule  ;  to  pray  ;  to  sell  ;*  ke,  to  fear ; 
ke,  a  stalk  ;  proud  ;  hasty  ;  ke,  happy  ;  kae,  violence  ;  harmony,  se, 
to  look  at ;  to  spread  out ;  a  connecting  thread ;  ardent ;  to  swear ;  day- 
break ;  a  peak  ;  se,  an  arrow  ;  to  wet ;  silk  ;  spittle  ;  the  beginning ;  se, 
power,  te,  to  blame,  to  kill;  te,  to  revile;  to  oppose;  te,  to  extend 
to ;  to  display ;  te,  a  pond ;  to  walk  ;  ta,,  to  frisk ;  to  be  burnt. 


*  When  definitions  are  separated  by  semicolon,  they  are  represented  liy  different 
Chinese  characters  of  the  same  name  ;  when  by  a  comma,  they  define  a  single  char- 
acter. 

As  the  Latin  final  m  indicated  a  nasal  vowel,  it  is  printed  as  in  sxAGNum ,  that  it 
may  not  have  the  prominence  of  a  real  (and  a  labial)  consonant  letter. 

The  examples  of  Jakutish  (yakutish)  are  from  Bohtlingk,  and  in  the  absence  of 
the  proper  types,  his  Russian  orthography  has  been  roughly  turned  into  English. 
It  could  not  have  been  done  critically  without  considerable  explanation,  and  the 
same  remark  applies  to  the  few  Hebrew  words  introduced. 

Should  the  suggestion  that  abies  is  from  abiex  be  correct,  the  following  table 
may  be  constructed  :  — 

ABIEGNUS,  of^fir. 

ABIE S  ,  thejir. 

p  I   ..  C   ..    ..  S  ,  pitch. 

F  ..  A  C  ..    ..  S  ,  a  torch. 

F  ..  o  C  ..  u  S  ,  a  hearth. 

n  £  i)   K  ..  1/  ..  ,  the  pine. 

s-p  I  ..  ss  ..  u  8  ,  dense,  etc. 

Here  SPissus  is  probably  for  s-pic-sus,  from  the  root  of  pac,  no.  i'*'^. 

In  the  following  examples,  a  few  of  the  words  are  not  placed  in  the  column  with 
those  having  the  same  initial  —  for  the  purpose  of  accommodating  modifications  of 
idea.  Tims,  Hungarian  szdk,  §  36,  stands  in  the  first,  instead  of  the  second 
column. 


212  rniLOLOGY  and  ethnology. 

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PHILOLOGY   AND    ETHNOLOGY. 


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FROM  THE   PROCEEDINGS 


CLEVELAND    MEETING 


AMERICAN    ASSOCIATION    TOR   THE   ADVANCEMENT 
OF   SCIENCE. 


Investigation  of  the  Power  of  the  Greek  Z,  by  means  of 
Phonetic  Laws.  By  Professor  S.  S.  Haldeman,  of  Colum- 
bia, Pa. 

Those  who  attempt  to  investigate  the  powers  of  the  Greek  and 
Latin  alphabetic  characters  with  the  aid  of  the  ancient  grammarians, 
are  met  by  a  difficulty,  in  some  places,  which  at  first  seems  insur- 
mountable ;  namely,  the  different  readings  of  the  text,  which  will 
allow  the  same  passage  to  be  quoted  to  maintain  the  most  opposite 
views.  This  may  be  attributed  to  the  fact,  that,  in  the  course  of  the 
gradual  changes  to  which  language  is  subject,  some  of  the  letters 
would  acquire  new  powers,  or  be  used  in  a  perverted  sense ;  and  so 
far  as  these  powers  and  characters  became  naturally  associated  in  the 
mind,  would  the  descriptions  of  the  ancients  seem  obscure  when  treat- 
ing of  a  character  thus  perverted. 

Let  there  be,  for  example,  a  collocation  of  the  English  consonants 
%d  (as  in  wisdom,  EscZras)  in  Greek  and  Latin,  and  let  this  double 
sound  be  represented  by  the  single  character  f,  writing  Ezras,  but 
pronouncing  Ez^Zras,  Let  the  same  character  f  be  gradually  as- 
sociated with  the  power  of  English  dz,  as  in  Italian,  and  to  such  an 
extent  that  Greek  and  Latin  words  will  be  naturally  read  like  Italian 
ones.  The  later  Italian  scholar,  in  learning  from  the  ancients  that  the 
Greek  f  was  a  double  letter  composed  of  s  and  fZ,  would  be  likely  to 
corrupt  the  text,  under  the  idea  of  correcting  it,  to  make  the  s  follow 


the  d;  and  this  is  just  the  condition  in  which  we  find  the  history  of 
Greek  Zcta. 

Important  characteristics  often  lie  in  the  combinations  of  the  vocal 
elements,  and  as  we  cannot  have  a  philosophical  view  of  a  language 
unless  its  exact  condition  be  known,  we  must  endeavor  to  solve  a 
question  of  this  kind  with  the  collateral  aid  of  the  mechanical  struc- 
ture of  the  language, —  depending  upon  the  physical  action  of  the 
vocal  oro-ans,  —  an  aid  which  grammarians  are  not  inclined  to  make 
use  of. 

Some  moderns,  including  the  Greeks,  doubt  the  fact  of  f  having 
been  a  double  letter,  although  the  ancient  grammarians  are  explicit 
upon  this  point.  These  Greeks  contend  that  the  comparison  of  f  to 
s  and  d  merely  meant  English  z  ;  as  if,  to  give  a  native  of  Somer- 
setshire (who  pronounces  s  as  English  ;)  an  idea  of  the  hissing  sound 
of  s,  we  were  to  tell  him  that  it  is  composed  of  his  perversion  (English 
s)  and  t. 

This  argument,  which  deserves  attention,  has  not  been  placed  in 
its  strongest  light  by  its  advocates.  As  d  and  h  are  aspirated  in 
Modern  Greek,  d  and  b  cannot  be  represented  except  by  a  new  letter, 
or  an  expedient,  as  j/8  and  /x/3  ;  so,  if  C  had  its  English  sound,  and  had 
to  be  explained  by  other  letters,  s  and  d  would  answer  the  purpose 
very  well,  because,  English  z  being  a  vocal  s,  the  character  of  the 
latter  would  answer  if  a  vocal  letter  like  d  were  added  to  indicate 
this  vocal  quality. 

Mr.  E.  A.  Sophocles  argues  that  C  ^^as  not  a  double  letter,  be- 
cause the  lonians  used  it,  although  they  separated  the  other  double 
letters,  writing  xo-  for  $,  and  (fxr  for  i|/-.  But  as  |  is  normally  ko-  and  not 
X0-,  it  would  have  been  erroneous  to  use  it  for  the  latter  dialectic  vari- 
ation. Let  us  illustrate  by  a  modern  example.  In  dialectic  variations 
the  German  word  niclits  loses  the  t,  making  7iicJis,  which  would  be 
equivalent  to  a  Boeotian  form,  as  if  vixs;  or,  simulating  a  Doric  form, 
it  would  be  7iilis,  as  if  viks  ;  and  it  is  evident  that,  whilst  the  use  of  the 
character  ^  would  be  of  doubtful  propriety  in  the  former,  it  would  be 
proper  in  the  latter. 

But  the  best  reason  for  not  writing  the  elements  of  C  separately, 
even  when  kct  and  no-  were  thus  represented,  was  the  impossibility 
of  doing  so,  from  the  fact  that  it  was  not  composed  of  any  two  letters 
of  the  alphabet,  except  in  the  Doric  and  iEolic  dialects,  where  it  was 


separated  into  o-  and  S,  (not  S  and  o-),  unless  when  initial,  where  C  prob- 
ably had  its  normal  power  of  English  zd^  and  consequently  was  not 
strictly  represented  by  sd. 

In  the  Doric  combination  crS,  therefore,  the  o-  may  be  presumed  to 
have  had  its  pure  or  hissing  sound.  But  the  initial  element  of  normal 
C  was  not  pure  a-,  but  English  and  French  z,  for  which  there  was  no 
separate  character  in  Greek  and  Latin,  as  there  is  not  in  Italian  and 
Spanish.  In  Modern  Greek,  the  8  part  of  C  having  been  lost,  the 
character  remains  with  its  English  power,  which  is  some  evidence  in 
favor  of  this  power  being  part  of  its  original  sound. 

This  explains  another  difficulty  upon  which  the  Modern  Greeks 
insist ;  namely,  that  if  C  bad  been  sd,  the  Romans  could  have  thus 
represented  it,  but  we  are  told  that  the  sound  was  unknown  to  Latin, 
that  is,  the  sound  of  the  part  represented  by  English  z.  Nevertheless, 
in  giving  some  idea  of  its  double  power,  the  ancient  grammarians 
made  the  nearest  appi'oximation  afforded  by  their  alphabet. 

Were  {"  composed  of  Latin  ds,  it  would  be  likely  to  be  common  as 
a  final  in  Greek,  where  a  is  the  commonest  final  consonant,  occurring 
detached,  and  in  |  and  \j/.  Surd  consonants  are  more  readily  produced 
than  sonant  ones,  and  in  languages  where  both  phases  are  present,  a 
surd  combination  may  be  expected  with  its  corresponding  sonant ; 
consequently,  if  C  were  So-,  we  should  be  able  to  find  ra,  which,  how- 
ever, does  not  occur. 

We  will  now  reverse  the  case,  and  see  what  part  the  f  will  play 
in  Greek,  if,  as  English  zd,  we  assume  that  it  ends  with  8.  In  cer- 
tain inflections,  when  a  8  or  r  would  fall  before  o-,  tending  to  form  the 
un-Greek  combination  ds  or  ts,  the  S  or  r  was  dropped,  as  in  eireaov, 
not  enera-ov ;  and  cfjpovriaco,  not  ^poirifcrco,  where  8,  as  the  last  element 
of  C,  would  be  brought  before  a.  In  ^ku  for  §8ica  an  elision  of  8  before 
K  is  shown,  and  the  same  thing  takes  place  with  the  final  8  of  f  in 
TTefj^povriKo  for  Tre({)p6vTiC<a.  If  8  before  fi  has  a  tendency  to  become 
0-,  it  will  be  likely  to  do  so  when  it  forms  part  of  f ;  hence  we  find 
fja-fiai  for  §8ixai  paralleled  by  (^povTLo-fxa  for  ({ypovnCfia.  In  this  case, 
if  ^  were  ds,  there  would  be  no  need  of  change,  as  that  would  form 
the  euphonious  Greek  combination  a/i. 

If  8  is  elided  before  o-,  another  dental,  v  (itself  a  nasal  d),  may  be 
expected  to  exhibit  the  same  law.  We  need  not  be  surprised,  there- 
fore, to  find  avCvyos  for  avvCvyos,  a  change  which  aids  in  confirming 


the  view  that  f  was  not  ds,  as  in  that  case  v  would  have  been  brought 
before  S,  forming  an  euphonious  Greek  combination  requiring  no 
change. 

As  a  Greek  or  Roman  could  write  no  foreign  word  containing  a 
sound  unknown  to  him,  he  represented  such  sounds  by  the  nearest 
approach  his  alphabet  afTorded,  writing  Ai'phaxad,  although  the 
original  contained  k-sh.  This  adaptation  accounts  for  the  Greek 
form  'A^ojTiai  being  used  for  two  Hebrew  originals,  in  one  of  which 
(  is  the  representative  of  the  sounds  sh-d,  and  in  the  other  of  s-rf, 
and  we  find  Esdras  written  both''Efpa  and*EcrSpay. 

As  the  Greeks  and  Romans  looked  upon  other  nations  as  barbarians, 
and  their  languages  as  barbarous,  they  did  not  care  to  pronounce  a 
sound  they  must  have  had  but  few  opportunities  to  hear ;  and  being 
unable  to  pronounce  it  without  practice,  the  Hebrew  shin  naturally 
became  S.  The  moderns,  however,  who  both  write  Latin  and  pro- 
nounce English  sh,  have  a  difficulty  in  representing  Latinized  geo- 
graphical and  personal  names ;  and  wishing  to  preserve  the  sound  in 
question,  they  do  not  like  to  convert  it  into  S,  but  fall  into  the  greater 
error  of  fancying  that  the  sound  may  be  represented,  and  in  Latin,  by 
English  sh,  French  ch,  or  German  sch,  which,  however,  can  have  no 
such  power  in  Latin,  where  sh  must  have  the  same  power  as  in  mis/tap, 
ch  that  of  Greek  Xi  and  sch  that  of  Greek  ax-,  or  o-  followed  by  x?  —  a 
result  perfectly  barbarous.  In  giving  several  geographical  names  to 
insects,  I  have  used  the  old  long  S  of  European  typography,  which 
had  already  been  used  in  printing  Latin. 


I 


I 


PL 
H3 


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